A Guide to Methods and Observation in History Studies in High School Observation — A Reader’s Guide

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A GUIDE TO METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY

STUDIES IN HIGH SCHOOL OBSERVATION

_Assistant Professor of Education in the University of Michigan_

RAND McNALLY & COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO

_Copyright, 1914_, By Rand, McNally & Company

The Rand-McNally Press _Chicago_

The outlines herewith presented have grown out of the necessities of a course conducted by the writer in the training of teachers in the University of Michigan. The course has been styled "Methods and High School Observations in History." It has been open only to seniors and graduate students who have specialized in history and who expect to teach that subject in high schools. The work has consisted of one class meeting per week for eighteen weeks, and of twenty hour-observations of history teaching in the Ann Arbor High School. The outlines, therefore, were designed to serve as a guide to these observations and as a basis for subsequent discussions.

In order that the students might have a deeper appreciation of the meaning of history and the various conceptions that have been held regarding it, and in order that they might possess at least a general knowledge of the place history has occupied in the schools, the elements composing historical events, and the values attributed to historical study, it seemed appropriate to preface the special queries respecting method by some introductory suggestions of a general character. This fact explains the inclusion of such material as is found in the first few pages of the present booklet.

In the hope, therefore, that students of Education in other colleges, universities, and normal schools may find suggestions in the material here brought together, and that teachers in active school work may also receive some practical help therefrom, the writer has been encouraged to place the outlines at the disposal of the public. If they shall prove of service to his colleagues and their students elsewhere, his aim and purpose will be fully met.

_University of Michigan_ _April, 1914_

II. ASPECTS OF HISTORY 1

III. SOURCE MATERIAL FOR HISTORY 2

IV. CONCEPTIONS OF THE PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF HISTORY 6

V. NOTABLE INFLUENCES AND PERSONS THAT HAVE MODIFIED THE CONCEPTION OF THE MEANING OF HISTORY IN THE LAST CENTURY 7

VI. HISTORY IN THE CURRICULUM 9

VII. VALUE AND AIMS OF HISTORY 11

VIII. ELEMENTS OF HISTORY 18

IX. METHODS OF APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY 22

X. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING HISTORY 23

XI. THE ORGANIZATION OF HISTORY IN HIGH SCHOOLS 25

XII. THE HISTORY TEACHER'S PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 26

XIII. THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 27

XIV. THE CLASSROOM 28

XV. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON 29

XVI. THE STUDY LESSON 30

XVII. THE RECITATION LESSON 31

XVIII. THE REVIEW LESSON 35

XIX. THE LESSON IN CIVICS 35

XX. SOME PRINCIPLES OF HISTORY DOGMATICALLY STATED 36

XXI. SOME POSITIVE GUIDES AND SUGGESTIONS 37

_Bibliography on Methods_ 40

_A Selected List of American Historical Fiction_ 42

A GUIDE TO METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY

STUDIES IN HIGH SCHOOL OBSERVATION

1. History is the science of the development of men in their activity as social beings.--_Bernheim._

2. History is the biography of a political society or commonwealth.--_Arnold._

3. History is the story of man living in social relations in the world.--_Hinsdale._

4. History is a record of the actions of men.--_Anon._

5. History is past politics.--_Freeman._

1. Which of the above definitions appeals to you most? Why?

2. Are there any criticisms to be made respecting any of the above definitions?

3. What common idea runs through all the above definitions?

4. Quote at least one other definition of history.

5. Formulate for yourself a thoroughly satisfying definition of history.

II. _Aspects of History._

2. Political and Constitutional.

4. Economic, Industrial, and Commercial.

1. Which of the above mentioned aspects should receive the chief emphasis in the elementary school? In the high school?

2. Would the constituency of the schools affect the answer?

3. Would the year in which the course is offered in the high school affect the answer?

4. Can you name other factors that would affect the answer?

5. Precisely what phases of history would be included under each of the above aspects?

6. Do the aspects mentioned exhaust the categories?

7. So far as you have observed, are the practices in the high school, respecting the aspects of history to be taught, in accord with your ideals and theories?

III. _Source Material for History._

1. Primary Source Material.

(_a_) Monuments, inscriptions, buildings, tablets, columns, coins, tools and utensils, tapestries, pottery, implements, and all archaeological and antiquarian material.

(_b_) Legal documents, e.g., statute books, charters, petitions, declarations, decrees, orders, court records, proclamations, treaties.

(_c_) Literary forms, e.g., manuscripts, notes, books, diaries, letters, paper money, newspapers.

(_d_) Narrative material, e.g., biographies, chronicles, memoirs, and accounts of customs, superstitions, ceremonials, etc.

2. Quasi-Primary Source Material, or the Auxiliary Sources of History.

(_a_) Historical geography, involving a consideration of the "origin, meaning, distribution, and changes of geographical names."

(_b_) Ethnology and sociology.

(_c_) Geology, paleontology, and physical geography.

(_d_) Paleography, or the science of ancient writings.

(_e_) Diplomatics, or treatises on official documents.

(_f_) Epigraphy, or the science of inscriptions.

(_g_) Numismatics, or the study of coins.

3. Secondary Authorities.

(_b_) Large historical works, e.g., Parkman's, Bancroft's, McMaster's, Fiske's.

(_c_) Biographies of historical personages, e.g., _The Life of Cavour_; _The True George Washington_; _Bismarck_.

(_d_) Compendiums of History, e.g., Green's _Short History of the English People_.

(_e_) Special treatises of historical epochs, e.g., Thwaites' _The Colonies_; Wilson's _Division and Reunion_.

(_f_) Encyclopaedic articles, e.g., "Waterloo" in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Cyclopedias of History; Paul Monroe's _Cyclopaedia of Education_.

(_g_) Dictionaries of historical names and references, e.g., Low's _Dictionary of English History_ or Larned's _History for Ready Reference_, 6 vols.

(_h_) Philosophical, legal, and constitutional treatises bearing on history, e.g., Bryce's _American Commonwealth_; Ostrogorski's _Democracy_ and _The Party System_; Montesquieu's _The Spirit of the Laws_.

(_i_) Historical novels, e.g., Hugo's _Les Miserables_; historical dramas, e.g., Shakespeare's _Merchant of Venice_; historical poems, e.g., Longfellow's _Courtship of Miles Standish_; historical essays and monographs, e.g., articles in the _Historical Review_ and other contemporary magazines.

(_j_) Writings on local history, e.g., Cooley's _History of Michigan_; Putnam's _Primary and Secondary Education in Michigan_; Michigan Pioneer Collection Articles.

1. How can primary source material be employed by teachers of history in the elementary and high school?

2. To what extent ought it to be employed?

3. Would the course of history offered, the year in which it is taught, and the character of the school and its pupils, affect the answer? If so, how?

4. What place in the high school has such a book as Hill's _Liberty Documents_?

5. To what extent do the observations made by you coincide with your views respecting the use of primary source material?

6. Make a list of ten or more "source materials" you personally could use in your teaching of history. Why would you select the "material" you have?

1. How can the quasi-primary source material be used in elementary schools and high schools?

2. What phases of such material do you plan to use?

3. What is the basis for your selection?

4. Could every high school teacher of history make effective use of the material you mention?

5. What deduction follows from your answer?

6. What have been your observations respecting the employment of material of this kind? Would such material lend itself to use in every recitation period?

1. Should more than one textbook be used in a given course in history? Why?

2. Does the grade in which the subject is taught affect the answer?

3. How can the larger historical works, biographies, and compendiums of history be used in the high school?

4. Is it practicable to have "special reports" from such sources made daily?

5. Should the teacher expect all pupils to make frequent "special reports"?

6. In how far is it feasible to supplement the textbook by means of definite class-readings?

7. Should class-readings be assigned on a page basis, or on a topical basis, or be left to individual selection and spontaneous effort?

8. Should exact references be given or should pupils be encouraged to master the art of finding for themselves, _within given_ limits, the supplementary data sought?

9. Precisely how can a high school teacher make use of such a treatise as Montesquieu's _The Spirit of the Laws_?

10. Make a list of at least twenty selections from historical novels, historical dramas, poems, essays, and monographs that you, as a teacher of history, could employ in the high school. What fact or event would you attempt to illustrate by each of these selections?

11. What use should high school teachers and pupils make of material dealing with local history?

12. What constitutes a good textbook in history for high school use?

13. Make a list of some of the modern textbooks on each of the following phases of history: (_a_) Ancient; (_b_) Mediaeval and Modern; (_c_) English; (_d_) French; (_e_) American; (_f_) Civil Government. What would be your first and your second choices of texts in each of these six divisions, and why, specifically, would you make those choices?

14. What texts are used in the high schools you have observed?

15. What school authorities ought to select the texts to be used in the high school? 16. How far have your observations in the high school been in accord with your ideals and theories with respect to the kinds and uses of historical "material" of all kinds?

IV. _Conceptions of the Purpose and Content of History._[1]

1. As polite literature: the Greek and Roman idea, e.g., Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy, Sallust, Caesar, Tacitus.

2. As annals and chronicles only: the Mediaeval idea, e.g., Gregory of Tours, Froissart, Einhard.

3. As a basis for governmental policies and as a means of interpreting literature: the Renaissance idea, e.g., Machiavelli, Petrarch, Boccaccio.

4. As a basis for theological dogma and religious practices: the Reformation idea, e.g., Luther, Melanchthon, and the Jesuits.

5. As a basis for interpreting legal institutions and practices: the idea of the 17th century, e.g., the Jurists.

6. As a foundation for philosophical speculation and a means of discovering the deeper influences that affect humanity and hence influence action and produce events: the idea of the 18th century, e.g., Voltaire and Montesquieu. [Voltaire held that human nature is the same under all circumstances and at all times, and hence sought to judge historical events by abstract universal standards. The "natural man" was his ideal man. Montesquieu, in _The Spirit of the Laws_, sought to show that events in history are but the manifestation of spiritual law, as revealed in conditions of climate, geography, soil, natural resources, racial temperament, etc.]

7. As a foundation for personal reactions, e.g., criticisms, interpretation, moralizing, personal philosophizing, or as mere facts entertainingly told: the idea of the early 19th century.

8. History as science, i.e., as explanatory of existing social institutions, customs, beliefs: the idea of the 20th century.

[1] The fundamental purpose of historical writing has ever been the recording of events. In addition, however, different ages have stressed other aims.

V. _Some Notable Influences and Persons that have modified the Conception of the Meaning of History in the Last Century._

1. Romantic School (late 18th century and early 19th century), with its deep reverence for the Middle Ages. Hence sympathetic treatment of history.

2. Herder (1744-1803), with his philosophy of "becoming" or development. Herder sought to show that all events are but the manifestation of a deity striving to work out an ideal universe. Hence all events must be judged by the standards of the time and country in which they appear, i.e., be judged by the characteristics of the age and people affected.

3. Hegel (1770-1831) carried the theory of Herder to more complete conclusions.

4. Niebuhr (1776-1831), "one of the most acute historical critics and philologists of modern times." Niebuhr was among the first to emphasize the need of a critical examination of source material, and of the building up the past out of these data.

5. Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886). His aim was to set before the reader the entire picture of events "with their causes, relations, and consequences."

6. Guizot, Francois P. G. (1787-1874). His great influence was in extending the scope of history so as to include universal history, not merely national history, or the history of isolated and local events.

7. Carlyle (1795-1881), through his keen insight into character and his love of hero-worship, introduced the vividly realistic and picturesque element.

8. Buckle (1821-1862) included economic forces in his studies and sought the spirit of history apart from particular men and events.

9. Macaulay (1800-1859) presented historical philosophy and the laws and theories of government in eloquent and fascinating style, thus bringing to the popular mind an interest that had heretofore been slight.

10. Froude (1818-1894), in charming literary style but with carelessness of detail, emphasized the personal element in history and set himself the ideal of "simply recording human actions without theorizing theron."

11. Stubbs (1825-1901) "introduced the critical study of mediaeval sources into England," employed exact methods of work, and gave impetus to constitutional history.

12. Green (1837-1883) depicted the progress of the life of the people and dealt only incidentally with the political history of the state.

13. Schmoller (1838- ) emphasized the economic aspects of history.

VI. _History in the Curriculum._

1. Pre-Renaissance Period: Incidental historical study made in connection with the study of biography and literature.

2. Renaissance Period: Historical studies pursued as auxiliary to the interpretation of the classics.

3. Post-Renaissance Period in Europe.

(_a_) Heraldry and local, contemporary historical incidents and events taught in Ritterakedemien after 1648.

(_b_) In Germany, the systematic study of history in schools really dates from about 1806, though an independent status was given history in the universities (particularly in Goettingen) in the 18th century.

(_c_) In France, historical study was introduced by Guizot (about 1833) but received no great attention until after 1860, though there was nominally a chair of history in the College de France after 1769.

(_d_) In England, none but incidental attention was given historical study until after the middle of the 19th century, though there was a professorship of ancient history at Oxford in 1622, and professorships of modern history were found at both Oxford and Cambridge in 1724.

4. Historical Study in America.

(_a_) History was taught incidentally by professors of philosophy in most of the universities from their founding.

(_b_) Yale had a professorship of ecclesiastical history in 1778-1795.

(_c_) Harvard established the first professorship in history (in the general sense of the term) in 1839, Jared Sparks being the first incumbent.

(_d_) Columbia University and the University of Michigan established chairs of history in 1857.

(_e_) Yale established a chair of history in 1865.

(_f_) The first seminary in history was established at the University of Michigan in 1869 by Prof. C. K. Adams.

(_g_) General history and ancient history were found in normal schools after about 1850.

(_h_) In secondary schools (first in academies, then later in high schools) history was taught as a separate study from about 1830. General history or ancient history received almost the sole emphasis, though English history was sometimes taught. In 1847 Harvard first began the practice of requiring history for admission.

(_i_) History work in elementary schools grew out of the study of geography, and became a separate study about 1845.

(_j_) Until about 1893 the only course given really serious attention in the high school was that of Ancient History in the classical course. The courses in General History, English History and American History were, for the most part, bookish, superficial, and devitalized.

(_k_) The Madison Conference (instituted by the N. E. A. in 1892) gave the first concerted impetus to the serious study of history in American public schools.

(_l_) The Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. in 1893 contains extensive and almost revolutionizing suggestions for improving the organization, study, and presentation of history in the schools.

(_m_) The Report of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association in 1896 supplemented the contemporary efforts at reform.

(_n_) The Report of the Committee of Five of the American Historical Association in 1907 embodied the best ideas which the decade had developed looking to further improvement of historical study and teaching.

(_o_) The Committee of Eight has still more recently sought to perfect the art of studying and teaching the subject.

VII. _Values and Aims of History._

(_a_) It develops the power of constructive imagination through the visualizing of scenes, events, and characters, and the effort to put oneself back into the past.

(_b_) It trains the reasoning faculty through the necessity of analyzing data, seeking causes and effects, and following historical development wherever it may lead.

(_c_) It develops the power of associative memory through the necessity of bringing facts into their essential and definite relations.

(_d_) It trains the judgment, through requiring the mind to make estimates respecting

(1) The probability of the fact recorded.

(2) The possibility and probability of accurate statement on the part of the one recording the event.

(3) The efficiency of the adjustment of means to ends.

(4) The righteousness of the act.

(5) The motives and ideals that dominated the act.

(_e_) It develops the power of comparison through demanding attention to similarities and differences in motives, agents, means, processes, events, places, dates, and results.

(_f_) It develops the power of classification--of cooerdinating and subordinating data.

(_g_) It develops the habit of forming generalizations from detailed facts.

(_h_) It gives a real conception of the meaning of time, through the considerations of man's slow evolution in social relations.

(_i_) It gives ability to take a large view of life's affairs and interests,--to see things in their essential relations.

2. Social, Political, and Civic.

(_a_) It gives habits of analyzing the aims and motives of men, and the means they employ to attain their ends, i.e., it gives insight into character and hence makes social adjustment easier.

(_b_) It develops tolerance for the opinions, convictions, and ideals of others, and tends to prevent hard, dogmatic, and uncompromising judgments and attitudes.

(_c_) It gives appreciation of the civic and political institutions of to-day--their origin, development, and purposes--and hence teaches the rights and obligations that are inherent in citizenship.

(_d_) It inspires patriotism "through arousing noble emotions that revolve about inherited responsibilities." ["A study of the times that tried men's souls tends to form souls that are capable of enduring trial."--_Hinsdale._]

(_e_) It reveals the slow evolutionary processes that operate in social life, and hence tends to encourage one to put himself in harmony with the laws of social evolution and to strive for social betterment while he at the same time is patient with existing conditions.

(_f_) It breaks down provincialism through revealing the relations, common traits, and interdependence of one community with another, and one nation with all other nations.

3. Moral and Religious.

(_a_) It habituates to weighing motives and actions as regards their righteousness.

(_b_) It implants ideals of personal character by disclosing the personal qualities and moral accomplishments of men and women who have, in large ways, affected history, and who have in consequence received lasting honor and renown.

(_c_) It teaches us to see something of the intangible forces that override personal preferences and hinder the direct application of principles sincerely held.

(_d_) It inspires a love of truth.

(_e_) It develops charity for the past; forbearance for the present; and faith and hope for the future.

4. AEsthetic (appealing to the sense of order, beauty, and proportion).

(_a_) It stirs to an appreciation of the beauties of man's handwork in sculpture, architecture, painting, musical and literary form, industry and commerce.

(_b_) It reveals the beauties of human genius in adapting institutions and governmental forms and processes to desired ends.

(_c_) It refines and enriches the emotions by bringing them into contact with the emotional expressions of the race.

(_d_) It develops literary expression, and a taste for good reading.

(_e_) It thrills and inspires, and incites to more thorough-going efforts to attain ideals of proportion and order.

(_a_) It aids in interpreting many allusions in literature and current expressions.

(_b_) It vitalizes geography.

(_c_) It gives a perspective for viewing all other branches of study, and hence for a fairer comprehension of them.

(_d_) It makes the experiences of travel intelligible.

(_e_) It gives a fund of information for use in conversation and public utterances.

(_f_) It breaks down provincialism; develops toleration, sympathy, and human interest; and hence makes intercourse with fellowmen more frictionless and cordial. (See Social Value.)

(_g_) It creates an interest in the resources, raw materials, tools, and processes of one's vocation, and fosters pride and contentment with labor.

(_h_) It explains racial, economic, religious, and social cleavages and prejudices, and makes for a truer democracy of feeling.

(_i_) It gives insight into legal, governmental, and business institutions and forms, and hence makes easier the adjustment to governmental and business requirements. (See Social Value.)

6. Cultural or Personal.

(_a_) It gives an elevated viewpoint from which better to observe all aspects of civilization to-day and thereby to comprehend them more fully.

(_b_) It furnishes an inexhaustible source of pleasure and satisfaction for leisure hours and for the consolation of old age.